#153 The Dangers of Incomplete Network of Arteries in the Brain (English)

The Dangers of Incomplete Network of Arteries in the Brain

[ScienceDaily: Migraines associated with variations in structure of brain arteries]

Complete Circle of Willis

Migraine is a primary headache disorder that mainly affects one of half of the head. There is no definite theory to fully explain the exact causes of migraine but known several symptoms: frequent changes in mood or sensation, visual or auditory disturbances, and headaches. University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine claims that the variations in arterial anatomy lead to asymmetry of the cerebral blood flow that triggers migraines. The ideal cerebral blood flow would be the complete circle of Willis, which portrays a definite symmetry. In the incomplete circle of Willis, there is an absence of anterior communicating artery and posterior communicating arteries. As the migraine patients were likely to have incomplete circle of Willis, according to the magnetic resonance angiography, the scientists induced that the fundamental cause of migraine may be associated to the incompleteness of the circle of Willis.

B: Complete Circle of Willis
C: Incomplete Circle of Willis
© University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine

Circle of Willis is the arterial anastomosis at the base of the brain, which covers over 80% of the cerebrum, supplying blood to the brain. The incomplete circle of Willis can lead to abnormal neuronal signals owing to the structural alterations of the blood supply. In fact, there is a study illustrating the relationship between measurements of blood oxygenation and neuronal activity. In other words, in the change of the brain vessel structure, the blood flow will also change, and hence the oxygen saturation in asymmetrical circle of Willis will lead to changes in the neuronal activity. Also, migraine suffering patients showed absence of anterior communicating artery and posterior communicating arteries.

Anterior communicating artery is especially closely located to the optic nerve. The absence of such artery could cause degradation of neural optic signals, which explains the visual disturbance – main migraine symptoms. Posterior communicating arteries are the lower half of the circle of Willis. This joins the basilar artery, which divides into two vertebral arteries. The absence of these arteries will fail to supply oxygenated blood into the occipital lobe, which is the visual processing center.

KSJ

#152 Cascara de banano y el cancer de piel (Español)

Cascara de banano y el cancer de piel

Tal vez te parezca extraño, pero la cáscara de la banana tiene que ver con tu piel mucho más de lo que probablemente te imaginas.

Tanto es así que incluso podría jugar un papel fundamental en la detección temprana del cáncer de piel, la forma más común de la enfermedad, según los datos de la Sociedad Americana contra El Cáncer

Los científicos dicen que las manchas negras que se forman en la piel de las bananas maduras tienen una enzima que también desarrollan quienes sufren cáncer de piel, lo cual podría favorecer a un diagnóstico sencillo y rápido de este tipo de enfermedad.

Y no sólo se lograría detectar antes la enfermedad, sino también aumentar las posibilidades de supervivencia.

¿Cómo es esto posible?

Una extraña coincidencia entre la piel de los humanos y la cáscara de la banana que podría ser la clave para diagnosticar cáncer de piel.

Cuando las bananas maduran, su piel queda cubierta de pequeñas manchas oscuras causadas por una enzima llamada tirosinasa.

La aparición de las manchas tiene lugar por el mal funcionamiento de la enzima y, en el caso de la piel humana, ésta puede alterar la pigmentación, que protege a nuestro cuerpo de irritantes (inflamaciones) y toxinas.

Y si esta misma enzima se presenta en la piel humana en grandes cantidades, provoca el desarrollo de melanoma, el tipo de cáncer de piel más peligroso.

Los científicos observaron la similitud entre la piel humana y la de la banana, y crearon una herramienta de diagnóstico. A través de un escáner estudiaron las manchas de las cáscaras de banana, que son, aproximadamente, del mismo tamaño que los melanomas de la piel humana.

Tras probarlo en la banana, aplicaron el escáner en tejidos de piel humana.

Y las conclusiones de los investigadores de la EPFL fueron que la enzima de la banana es un indicador fiable del crecimiento del melanoma. Trabajando con la fruta se desarrolló y probo un método de diagnóstico antes de aplicarlo en muestras humanas con el que se pudo detectar la presencia y la cantidad de estas enzimas.

El escáner tiene ocho electrodos diminutos, espaciados entre sí como si púas de dientes que "peinan" la piel para medir la cantidad y distribución de tirosinasas.

De acuerdo con el estudio, en la etapa más temprana (etapa 1) del cáncer de piel, la enzima apenas está presente y se distribuye de manera más uniforme en la etapa 2, para hacerlo de forma desigual en la etapa 3, cuando el cáncer ya comenzó a extenderse a otras partes del cuerpo.

Con esta herramienta se puede detectar las fases 2 y 3 de melanoma y utilizarlo para diagnosticar la fase 4.

AAM

#151 The Fundamental Stage of Human Development: Embryo Implantation (English)

The Fundamental Stage of Human Development: Embryo Implantation
[Science Daily: New method allows first look at key stage of human development, embryo implantation]

Embryo implantation indicates the arrival of the of the blastocyst on the functional layer of endometrium after 5 days after ovulation or fertilization as the result of the coordination between ovulation and endometrial development.

A human embryo 12 days after fertilization in vitro
Copyright. The Rockefeller University

Despite significant development in the biomedical field, the mechanism of the molecular and cellular processes in human development that occurs 14 days after fertilization was a conundrum. In fact, Ali Brivanlou, head of the Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, coined the blastocyst as "a complete black box". However, the scientists in the Rockfeller University successfully realized the process of implantation in the laboratory from creating the optimum chemical environment for the blastocysts, which provided the appropriate scaffolding for the implementation to occur. As a result, scientists were to attain the opportunity to solve such riddles like early pregnancy loss, which is like "sheding light inside that box".

The implantation process that occurred outside the human uterus demonstrated things beyond what scientists expected. In fact, this process confirmed the variations between species owing to the different development compared to the model system that was based on mouse embryology. Also, the scientists observed the staggering phenomenon called self-organization. For instance, the water molecules would form a symmetrical shape without any external force, which is definitely going against the nature of increasing antropy. Although self-organization do occur in human embryonic stem cells, it is to be discovered in virtue of this experiment that self-organization appear in the context of a whole human embryo. Thus, human embryo can develop in the complete absence of maternal input for the first 12 days, and this observation controverts to the preexisting theory that implantation is triggered by molecular crosstalk.

It is a promising experiment as it complied with the international bioethical guidelines. In fact, this experiment provided the scaffolding for the reexamination of the 14-day limitation rule to be varied based on the different types of embryo research and their pros and cons. Moreover, the Rockefeller research team laid emphasis on the importance to educate the public and abide by the ethical consensus when proceeding this research. The successful materialization of the human embryo implantation process in an experimental setting is evidently going to act as a catalyst in grasping the causes of the disorders such as early pregnancy losses and birth defects.

New method allows first look at key stage of human development, embryo implantation. Science daily. Rockfeller University. 4 May, 2016. Web. 8 May, 2016
<https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160504141444.htm>
Mescher, AL. Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, 12th Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Web. 8 May, 2016 <https://www.accessmedicine.com>

KSJ

#150 The Spleen (English)

The Spleen

The spleen is one of the largest organs in the lymphatic system. It is a brown, flat and oval shaped organ that filters and stores blood to protect the body from infections and blood loss.

Location

The spleen is located between the stomach and the diaphragm in the left hypochondriac region of the abdominal body cavity, protected by the ribs. It is delivered oxygenated blood by the splenic artery, which branches off from the aorta and the celiac trunk. The splenic vein carries deoxygenated blood away.

Structure

The spongy inner tissue of the spleen contains blood vessels and hollow sinuses to store blood, which it can release into circulation when the body has been injured and additional blood is needed. Platelets are also stored with the blood to help form blood clots if needed and to prevent further blood loss.

Functions

Around the vessels and sinuses are regions of red pulp and white pulp. The red pulp regions contain reticular fibers that filter old blood cells from the blood flowing through the spleen. The captured cells are digested and leftover iron and hemoglobin are recycled. The zone between the red and white pulp acts as a filter to capture pathogens in the blood and pass them on to the white pulp. The white pulp, made of lymphatic tissue containing macrophages, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes destroys pathogens in the blood and produce antibodies. During certain infections the spleen may enlarge due to the increase in stored white blood cells, captured pathogens and antibodies.

Importance

The spleen is not a vital organ, meaning that its functions are useful, but not essential for life. In its absence, red bone marrow, the liver and the lymph nodes can do the same filtration and blood recycling functions of the spleen. Because it is not one of the vital organs it is soft, spongy and vascular. This means that any damaged caused to the spleen is usually treated by it’s entire removal. Untreated damage to the spleen could result in internal hemorrhaging and eventual death.

SJS

#149 Vitamin: The Elixir of Life (English)

Vitamin: The Elixir of Life
[Science Daily: Vitamin stops the aging process of organs]

The overall performance of the human body degenerates with the increase of age. In fact, it is an inevitable phenomenon that organs deteriorate with age. The fundamental cause for the loss of some functions of all vital organs lies on the aging of cells, tissues that builds up an organ due to over exposure to ultra-violation over years.

 

According to MedlinePlus, a credible source, organs have a potent reserve ability to function exceeding the demanded level. However, such an organ like the heart would lose 1% of this reserve each year after the age of 30. The linear line demonstrating the relationship between the percentage of performance of the maximum heart rate and the age in years supports this theory. 

Recently, the team of researchers at EPFL’s Laboratory of Integrated Systems Physiology (LISP) discovered that nicotinamide riboside (NR), a similar type to vitamin B3, has the positive effects on the functioning of stem cells. Mitochondria is a cell organ that is useful in stem cells owing to its crucial role in metabolism – the “powerhouse” of the cell. Moreover, stem cells regenerates the damaged or deteriorated organ by producing new specific cells. 

The experimental results of the elderly mice’s intake of nicotinamide riboside showed that the NR molecules helped the functions of the mitochondria. NR possesses similar molecular structure to vitamin B3 and is a precursor of NAD+. NAD+ plays a substantial role in the process of the aerobic cell respiration – Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain (ETC), which results in the synthesis of ATP. Also, the mice that was given with NR had longer life span than the mice that didn’t get it. 

NR has a comparable effect on stem cells of the brain and skin. Most importantly, there are no negative side effects even at high doses of NR. Although for the commercialization of NR as a medicine requires further in-depth studies, it is evident that NR demonstrates a promising mechanism for the field of regenerative medicine.  

[Bibliography]

“Vitamin stops the aging process of organs.” Science Daily. Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. 28 April,2016. Web. 30 April, 2016.

<https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160428152124.htm>

Martin, Laura J. “Aging changes in organs – tissue – cells.” MedlinePlus. 3 May, 2015. Web. 30 April, 2016. <https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/004012.htm>

KSJ

#148 Macular Degeneration (English)

Macular Degeneration

Macular degeneration is the main cause of loss of vision and blindness for people over the age of sixty-five. There is degeneration of the macula which is part of the retina that gives us central vision. There are two forms of macular degeneration, wet and dry.

Wet macular degeneration, also known as neovascular degeneration, is when blood vessels grow in an area where they don't naturally grow. These blood vessels leak blood and fluid which causes permanent damage to retinal cells that are light sensitive. Some of cells die off and create blind spots in vision. The body tries to fix this problem by creating a new network of blood vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen to the eye's retina. This process works against the body as only more scarring occurs. There are two types of wet macular degeneration, occult and classic. Occult is less severe because there is less blood vessel growth and leakage. Classic degeneration is when scarring and blood vessel growth is very clear, producing more severe vision loss. In general, the neovascular version of macular degeneration leads to more serious vision loss than the non-neovasuclar.

Dry macular degeneration, or non-neovascular, results from either thinning of muscular tissues due to age or the deposition of pigment in the macula. Yellow spots begin to build up around the macula. These are thought to be deteriorating tissue.

Age-related Macular Degeneration

This normally is slow and takes place over a long period of time with no pain. However, vision loss can be sudden. You can detect early signs of macular degeneration through a retinal exam. If there is a problem with your central vision may have you get a flourescein angioprahy to check the blood vessels around the macula.

Risk factors

Some risk factors include age, obesity and inactivity, genes and heredity, high blood pressure, lighter eye color and smoking.

Cure/prevention

There is currently no FDA-approved treatment for non-neovascular (dry) degeneration. There are treatments to i prove vision or delay its progression. However, you can prevent macular degeneration from happening by exercising, wearing sunglasses that block the sun's UV rays, and eating a healthy diet. For wet macular degeneration, there are FDA approved drugs like Lucentis, Eyelea, Macugen, and Visudyne.

References:

http://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/amd.htm

 

PoS

#147 Bulls and the colour red (English)

Bulls and the colour red

Bullfighting conjures a common image: An angry bull charging at a matador’s small red cape, the muleta. The muleta has been red ever since the early 18th century, so people associate the colour red with bulls charging.

However, this is not true! Like most mammals, bulls are red-green colour blind, a form of colour blindness in which red and green are perceived as identical. Therefore, BULLS CAN’T DISTINGUISH THE COLOUR RED.

Then, why do the bulls charge at the matador’s red cape? In reality, bulls are irritated, not by the muleta’s colour but by the cape’s movement as the matador waves it around.

In 2007, MythBusters in the Discovery Channel tested a live bull on colour versus movement in three separate experiments.

First, they put three stationary flags, one red, one blue and one white, in the bull’s enclosure. The bull charged at all three flags regardless of the color. Next, they put three dummies dressed in red, blue and white in the ring, and again the bull charged all three without discrimination. Finally, they put a live person dressed in red in the ring with the bull. That person stood still while two cowboys — not in red — moved around the ring. The bull went after the moving cowboys and left the motionless red-clad person alone.

These results showed that bulls had the same reaction to the colours white and blue as they did to the colour red. Moreover, they revealed that bulls only became interested and began charging the capes when they were moved around.

We can conclude that in bullfighting, it is the movement of the matador’s cape, and not the color, which provokes a reaction in the bull.

This brings up the inquiry: why is the cape red? Red is an energising colour and, therefore, excites and motivates the audience. Okay, that’s a very lame explanation. Here’s a more practical reason for using red: In most cases, and I’m sorry if you didn’t know, bulls are killed by the matador in the end. The muleta’s colour red thus helps to cover one of the more gruesome aspects of a bull fight: splatters of the animal's blood.

PSB

#146 Blood-Brain Barrier: The New Pathway for Direct Treatment of Brain Disorders (English)

Blood-Brain Barrier: The New Pathway for Direct Treatment of Brain Disorders
[Science Daily: Blood-brain barrier breakthrough reported by researchers]

Blood brain barrier working group in Johns Hopkins University defines the blood brain barrier (BBB) as a dynamic interface that separates the brain from the circulatory system and protects the central nervous system from potentially harmful chemicals while regulating transport of essential molecules and maintaining a stable environment. Moreover, an abstract from NCBI describes the BBB as a single layer of specialized endothelial cells that coats the central nervous system (CNS) vasculature and physically separates the brain environment from the blood constituents to maintain the homeostasis of the CNS. The structure and function of the BBB correspond to the interactions between the different cell types, and the extracellular matrix of the brain and blood flow in the capillaries.

According to the Society for Neuroscience, the BBB plays a potent role in protecting against the passage of foreign substances that it hinders the entrance of essential drugs that are able to repair the injuries and diseases appertained to brain. Due to the selective entry of molecules, only beneficial molecules for brain functioning such as amino acids, oxygen, glucose, and water are allowed to penetrate through.

Those descriptions were how the field of Neuroscience identified the BBB. However, Cornell researchers pioneered the discovery that would controvert the existing theories. They found a way to penetrate the BBB that would facilitate the delivery of drugs directly into the brain to treat brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and chemotherapy-resistant cancers.

The use of FDA-approved drug called Lexiscan can open the BBB for a short time period which is an adequate length of time to deliver such therapies into the brain. Lexiscan is also known as Regadenoson is an A2A adenosine receptor agonist that is a coronary vasodilator. A2A adenosine receptors are also found in the BBB owing to the fact that adenosine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Also, A2A adenosine receptor plays an eminent role in regulating the human BBB permeability. In reference the function of A2A adenosine receptor, one can deduct how the use of Lexiscan is a ground breaking news for the cure of such brain disorders that encountered difficulties delivering the treatments through the BBB.

In this image, we could see the arrow from the Adenosine receptor to P-glycoprotein (P-gP). The drug efflux transporter P-gP is highly expressed on brain endothelial cells and blocks the entry of most drugs delivered to the brain. However, the activation of the A2A adenosine receptor (AR) with A2A AR agonist, Lexiscan, rapidly decreases P-gP function and expression. In the presence of Lexiscan, the permeability for foreign molecules of the BBB increases substantially.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160408132649.htm

http://bloodbrainbarrier.jhu.edu/about/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25262373
http://www.brainfacts.org/brain-basics/neuroanatomy/articles/2014/blood-brain-barrier
http://www.rxlist.com/lexiscan-drug.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10668415
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27043281

KSJ

#145 The Detrimental Effect of Fructose on Brain Genes (English)

The Detrimental Effect of Fructose on Brain Genes
[Science Daily: Fructose alters hundreds of brain genes, which can lead to a wide range of diseases]

Wide range of diseases are closely associated with the changes that occur in genes in the brain. A study held by UCLA demonstrated the adverse effect of fructose on brain genes, which can further lead to multiple number of diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This study alerted those who favour the fructose rich Western diet.  

Fructose is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in plants. It is absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion. Americans are able to access fructose at ease in virtue of its cheap price and high sweetness. It is found in high-fructose corn syrup, cheap liquid sweetener, syrups, honey and soft drinks. The issues appertained to fructose will aggravate danger owing to its over-exposure to people. According to an article from Medscape Medical News, fructose intake has exceeded more than 10% of daily energy in US diet.

Fortunately, UCLA has discovered that omega-3 fatty acids (DHA) can prevent the harmful effects caused by fructose. DHA occurs naturally in the membranes of our brain cells, but it is produced in subtle quantity, which is not enough to combat diseases. DHA plays a substantial role in fighting diseases as it pushes the entire gene pattern back to normal instead of altering limited number of genes. To attain the adequate quantity to fight against the disease, we ought to consume it through our diet. DHA reinforces several functions such as learning and memory by strengthening synapses in the brain neurons.

The effects of both fructose and DHA were investigated on rats by testing their abilities to escape from a maze after six weeks of fixed diets (independent variable). The first group of rats drank water with the amount of fructose, which commensurate with the amount of fructose a person will intake by drinking a liter of soda per day. The second group of rats drank water with both fructose and DHA. The amount of fructose was equivalent to the one of DHA. The third group of rats was given water with the absence of fructose and DHA. When they were put in the maze.

The results showed that the first group took twice of the time that the second and third groups took to navigate the maze. The reserchers concluded that fructose impaired the rats’ memory, whereas DHA compensated the harmful effects produced by fructose. Also, rats in the first group had the highest blood sugar, triglycerides and insulin levels. In humans, the raised glucose, triglycerides and insulin levels are factors that trigger obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and etc. Furthermore, over 900 genes in the rats' hypothalamus and hippocampus were changed. Moreover, the majority of these genes were similar to those in human brains, and modifications on these genes generally lead to Parkinson’s disease, depression, and bipolar diseases. In addition, fructose appeared to primarily affect the genes called Bgn and Fmod that can set off a cascade effect (chain effect) that alters other vast number of genes in the brain. Also, fructose is found to remove or add a biochemical group to cytosine that turns the genes either “on” or “off”.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160422091900.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose
http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/577279

KSJ

#144 Mad Cow Disease/Creutzfeldt Jacob Disease (CJD) (English)

Mad Cow Disease/Creutzfeldt Jacob Disease (CJD)

 Mad cow disease, otherwise known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease. It causes the degeneration of the brain and spinal cord. A cow gets this disease by eating the remains of other cattle (cannibalism). A cow with this disease will become more aggressive and will react to noise or touch more than before. The cow will also have a drop in milk production and may get anorexia, over time they will lose their ability to stand.
 The triggering agent is a mis-folded protein called a prion. Even if the meat of the animal is cooked, the prions are not destroyed. The prions carry the disease and cause the brain to degenerate. The protein forms dense plaque fibers that make holes in the brain which causes a decline in mental and physical abilities and eventually death. It is hard to test cows for the disease, as the prion protein has low levels in blood or urine. The only reliable test is examining the tissues through a necropsy.
 The disease is transmitted to humans by eating food contaminated with the brain, spinal cord, or digestive track of infected carcasses. For most patients, it is assumed that they ate tainted beef and contracted it. In humans the disease is called Creutzfeldt Jacob Disease (CJD).To prevent the disease, there has been a ban on feeding cattle any meat and bone meal. In countries that have not had the disease, prevention relies on feeding regulations, import control, and surveillance measures. For example, in UK the spinal cord, brain, intestines, eyes, and tonsils must be disposed of correctly.

 However, there are two types of CJD. There is variant CJD and sporadic or classic CJD. Variant CJD is caused by eating nervous tissues from diseased cattle. Classic CJD can affect vegetarians or meat eaters and is not linked to eating nervous tissues from diseased cattle. There are one to two cases per million people in one year. This disease is usually fatal within six months.

Resources:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy
http://www.webmd.com/brain/mad-cow-disease-basics
PoS

#143 Cloning (English)

Cloning

Cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such s bacteria insects or plants reproduce asexually. You might also know it as mitosis, but this refers only to the natural process by which eukaryotic cells split and reproduce to create genetically identical offspring. It is extremely simple for scientist to clone organisms that are unicellular (bacteria, yeast) however the cloning of stem cells proves to be far more complicated and challenging.

The cloning of stem cells is also known as somatic-cell nuclear transfer (SNCT) and it involves creating embryos, not for the purpose of creating cloned humans but to harvest the steam cells for further research on human development. Some form of a cloned human has been made in the past, but its cell did not divide enough times to develop properly. It is believed that human clones have been created and hidden from the press, however officially human stem cell lines have not yet been isolate from a clonal source. Cloning can also be a form of therapy as embryonic stem cells can be harvested to treat diseases like diabetes and Alzheimer’s. The process of cloning involves removing the nucleus from an egg cell and taking the nucleus from an adult cell and inserting it in to the egg cell. The egg reacts with the new nucleus and begin to develop in to an embryo which will then become a blastocyst and further have the ability to become any human cell. The SNCT process is common because it is genome-specific and the scientists can exclude certain traits, which they do in practice for farm animals. The most challenging step in SNCT is once the somatic cells have been acquired, the maternal DNA must be removed from the oocyte while it is in Metaphase II. After this has been done the somatic nucleus is introduced and the one-cell embryo can develop. If the embryo is successfully developed it is inserted in a surrogate (cow or sheep if it is a farm animal).

Cloning has come a long way since the famous sheep Dolly, who was a clone in 1996, when only one out of 277 eggs survived the process of SNCT. Nowadays, researchers are able to successfully clone seven to eight out of ten eggs and a Korean company (Sooam Biotech) is known to produce 500 cloned embryos a day. There remains a lot of ethical debate as to wether cloning should be allowed or not, it is common in farm animals and plants yet it remains illegal to clone human embryos beyond 8 days.

 

ETR

#142 Synechiae (English)

Synechiae
 

Synechiae is an eye condition where the iris sticks (or adheres) to either the cornea or lens of the eye. This can happen to all animals and humans. It is normally caused by inflammation and increases the intraocular pressure in the eye (the pressure of the eye). Patients with synechaie typically have an inflammatory disease like uveitis. It is thought to be inflammatory cells, fibrin, and protein deposition that stimulate adhesion between structures. This is diagnosed with a slit lamp exam which allows doctors to see the area in the front of the eye. An abnormal slit lamp exam means that a variety of conditions may be present.

Some of the complications of synechiae include secondary angle closure glaucoma. This is when the eye pressure rises due to a condition. Initially, the eyes are normal and there is no pain, but as time goes on there is a considerable amount of vision lost, and climbing stairs could  becomes difficult due to bad eyesight. Another complication of synechiae is an iris bombe. An iris bombe is when the pressure in the posterior chamber rises and results in angle closure glaucoma. Chronic angle closure is another complication. It is a major cause of blindness in Asia. Glaucoma is a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball which gradually causes loss of sight. Glaucoma is also the second leading cause of irreversible blindness. Roughly sox million people in the world are blind because of this disease.

To manage this condition, you should treat any cause, cycloplegics can also stop adhesion from occurring. Anti-inflammatory medications also prevent further formation of synechiae. In order to prevent synechiae formation, you should check to see if you have a family history of ocular infection, trauma, or surgery, a family history of glaucoma or other eye disease, and rheumatological disease and inflammatory syndromes.

Resources:
http://eyewiki.aao.org/Synechiae
http://www.healthline.com/health/slit-lamp-exam#Procedure2
http://www.eyerounds.org/atlas/pages/iris-bombe.htm
http://www.aao.org/bcscsnippetdetail.aspx?id=c8b24536-77bf-43eb-8887-d6e08f654f26
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1189962-clinical
http://www.medicinenet.com/glaucoma/page2.htm
PoS

#141 Common dreams and their meanings (English)

Common dreams and their meanings

It is common knowledge that everyone will dream when they sleep but what do those dreams really mean? Many scientists have tried to figure this out and they have found that some dreams many people have and are actually much more in relation with our life than we may think! Some people think that dreams are only a result of fragments of memory and images that the brain puts together but are actually nonsense. Others think that they are omens and give people insights on their life. Dream experts have found meanings to common dreams that people may have and which you can choose to believe or not. 

Common dreams and their meanings:

• Being naked in public: This dream may have different meanings according to how it plays out. Dream experts believe that such a dream means that people are trying to hide something or that we may not be prepared for something. 

• Falling: falling is a very common dream but what does it actually mean? Dream experts believe that falling in a dream signifies insecurities and anxiety. It may also mean that you feel like you are failing in your workplace or at school. In any way it is the fear of doing wrong and that you can’t take control over certain aspects in your life.

• Being chased: this dream symbolizes running away from problems that you may be subjected to. An example is failing at school and instead of fixing this problem, you are running away from it.

• Taking an exam: taking an exam is a very stressful thing for many and dreams like this are therefore no surprise. This dream is thought to signify that you feel like you are being tested or that you are presented to a challenge that you feel like you are not able to take on. It could also mean that you have been neglecting something that you know you need to do.

• Flying: a dream where you fly are sometimes considered lucid dreams. In other cases, though, it may not be this and actually mean something else. Flying usually means that you are in control/on top of things or you may have changed perspectives on something. It may also mean that you feel strong and undefeatable.

• Running but not moving forward: have you ever felt like you were running in a dream but as you kept going you felt like you weren’t moving forward? It usually signifies that you have too much on your plate and you are not able to catch up with the things you need to do.

• Having your teeth fall out: many think that teeth are what make us feel powerful and it is what enables us to communicate. Losing your teeth may not only make you feel embarrassed and feel a loss of power as you lose the ability to share your thoughts, but it may also mean that it is associated with our feelings or the way we feel about our appearance.

Even though dream experts believe that these recurrent dreams have these meanings, we cannot be certain that these are their actual connotations. Some interpretations may be right for some people but may be wrong for others. Have you ever had any of these dreams? Do you believe in the meaning of these dreams?

Reference:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/dream7.htm
 

PRM

#140 Chameleons (English)

All you’ve ever wanted to know about chameleons

Chameleons are fascinating creatures, part of the reptilian family, known for their ability to change colour. They are commonly found in Madagascar, Africa, Spain, Portugal and Asia in rain forests, savannas, semi-deserts and steppes. The typical diet consists of insects and birds. Their main tool is their tongue which can be twice as long as their bodies! There are 171 species of chameleons and as a result there is an extreme variety in size. The largest being the Parson’s chameleon which can grow up to 69.5 centimeters long, and the smallest which grows to just 16 millimeters long known as the leaf chameleon. The leaf chameleon is one of the smallest vertebrates discovered and is so small it can sit comfortably on the head of a match stick!


Now let’s get to the age old question – why and how do chameleons change colour?! Well often we’re told that chameleons change colour to camouflage into their surroundings. Although this seems to make sense it is not the real reason explaining their nifty skills. The rapid colour change is caused by the adjustment of special skin cells. Chameleons rely on structural changes that affect how light reflects off their skin. The cells involved are called iridophore cells. These contain pigment as well as reflecting light. There are two thick layers of these cells which contain nano-crystals, all of different shapes and sizes. These “crystals” are key to the dramatic color shifts. The arrangement of the upper cell can be stimulated through excitement or relaxation leading to a change in colour. When the skin is in the relaxed state, the nano-crystals  are very close to each other causing the cells to reflect short wavelengths. In instances of excitement they are further apart and thus longer wavelengths are reflected. Only adult male chameleons change color while females and young chameleons are seemingly more dull-colored and have a very reduced upper layer of iridophore cells. Colour change is common when a chameleon faces a rival male or when they are trying to attract a female.
Another interesting feature of the chameleon is their independent eye movement. They can look in two directions at the same time as well as having 360 vision. Cool right? Their eyes are similar to that of a camera lens as they can focus quickly enlarging images.
McA

#139 Bacteria in Human Digestive Tract (English)

Bacteria in Human Digestive Tract

 Population of microbes inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. What are the optimum conditions for bacterial growth that leads disparate bacteria to inhabit human body? First and foremost, warm temperature (37°C) plays a crucial role in the growth of bacteria, so mesophiles, which are warm-blooded animals, provide an ideal environment for bacterial growth. Second, moisture is important as it is the water source for bacteria to grow. Consequently, moist tissues in the body like the mouth and nose are prone to bacterial growth. Third, majority of the bacteria require oxygen to grow. Fourth, the pH of an environment is a prominent factor for bacterial growth. Most types of bacteria prefer pH level of the human body. Furthermore, bacteria cannot survive at extreme pH levels.

 Although negative perception on bacteria is deeply entrenched in people’s mind, most of the bacteria associated with humans are reported not be harmful at all but are necessary for maintaining healthy body.

 In this post, I will be discussing about bacteria in the gut flora; gut flora is the human flora of microorganisms that normally live in the digestive tract that have necessary functions for their hosts. Overall, bacteria in digestive tract help digestion, synthesize vitamins, and create enzymes that the human body cannot synthesize. The average human body consists of about ten trillion microorganisms in the gut.

 In the stomach, the high acidic condition impedes the bacterial growth. However, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Lactobacillus, and Peptostreptococcus inhabit the stomach. Patients suffering from chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease may have Helicobacter pylori that is classified as a carcinogen for gastric cancer.

Enterobacteriaceae
Copyright Centre for Disease Control

 In the small intestine does not have a great amount of bacteria due to the influence of the stomach. The alkaline condition of the small intestine facilitates the growth of Enterobacteriaceae. The bacterial flora of the small intestine provide regulatory signals promote the function and the utility of the gut.

 The large intestine contains the most number of bacteria in the human body. Faecalibacterium prausntitzii is the most common species in healthy adults. Escherichia coli lives in the colon. I wanted to mention the strains of E.coli in virtue of extensive studies on it. They have many favourable functions such as the production of vitamin K2 and prevention of pathogenic bacteria from establishing in the intestine. However, serotype O157:H7, one of the strains of E.coli, poses harm to human health as it causes food poisoning.

 In conclusion, according to various credible research results, the gut flora and humans have symbiotic and mutualistic relationship. The microorganisms ferment energy substrates in excess, train the immune system, hinder growth of detrimental species, regulate the development of the gut, synthesize vitamins like vitamin K and biotin, and produce hormones that signals to store fats.

* In this post, I used bacteria as the alternative term of microorganism owing to the fact that bacteria are categorized under microorganism.

[Reference]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_microbiota
http://www.livestrong.com/article/126073-four-conditions-bacterial-growth/
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/nutgro_5.html
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-a-microorganism-and-a-microbe
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/68511.php

KSJ

#138 Лунатизм (Somnabulism) (Русский)

Лунатизм (Somnabulism)

Что это?

Лунатизм представляет собой удивительное и необычное явление, которое стало причиной возникновения множества мифов. Оно соединило в себе фазы сна и бодрствования, нормы и отклонения. «Лунатизм» - это более древнее название явления. На самом деле, оно но не имеет отношение к луне, полнолунию и ее фазам. По версии, такое название произошло по причине того, что его выявить проще в светлые ночи, то есть при хорошем освещении луны. Научное название – сомнамбулизм. В прошлом болезнь очень тщательно скрывалась от глаз общественности, родственники больного боялись действий инквизиции. Согласно «Молоту ведьм», лунатизм – это последствие вселения в человека нечистой силы.

Причины лунатизма у взрослых

 

Взрослые также могут ходить во сне, только в меньшей мере, чем дети. Лишь у 1% людей сомнамбулизм может происходить с самого детства. Причинами его появления служат:

•   Побочные явления медикаментов

•   Сильное алкогольное опьянение

•   Стресс

•   Некоторые заболевания мозга

•   Действие наркотиков

•   Симптомы

Симптомы лунатизма

•   Сон с полностью открытыми глазами.

•   Сон в положении сидя.

•   Передвижения во сне.

•   При пробуждении человек полностью дезориентирован.

•   Разговор, произношение звуков во сне.

Обычно приступ возникает на стадии медленного сна и может иметь различное продолжение: человек садится на кровать, начинает что-то говорить и затем опять ложится или встает, начинает ходить по квартире или одеваться. В активной фазе сомнамбулизма человек хорошо ориентируется в пространстве, может несложно отвечать на вопросы. В большинстве случае он ложится спать, только уже в другом месте (в гостиной, в ванне и т. д.), а утром не знает, как здесь очутился.

Лечение

Не во всех случаях сомнамбулизм требует лечения. Если Вы стали свидетелем хождения во сне, просто аккуратно придержите человека и направьте его на кровать. Не стоит будить «лунатика» - это может послужить возникновению страха, дезориентации и даже агрессии. В качестве лечения может применяться сеанс гипноза. Если причиной стал прием определенных лекарств, то устранить лунатизм можно при полном отказе от принимаемых медикаментов. Если приступы лунатизма могут быть небезопасны для человека и сильно отражаются на его состоянии и поведении в течение дня, то специалист может назначить бензодиазепины или антидепрессанты, которые прекратят возникновение приступов. Если в качестве причины выступает психическое или физическое заболевание, то устранение лунатизма связано непосредственно с устранением первопричины. В любом случае необходимо быть уверенным в себе и настроенным на положительный результат. В большинстве случаев человек, страдающий сомнамбулизмом, не нуждается в особенном медикаментозном и немедикаментозном лечении, и может выздороветь сам собой.

KAA

#137 Вред сотовых телефонов на организм человека (Dangers of cellphones: Cellphones can lead to brain cancer) (Русский)

Вред сотовых телефонов на организм человека

(Dangers of cellphones: Cellphones can lead to brain cancer)

Одним из подарков научно-технического прогресса стало изобретение сотового телефона. Сегодня ученые считают его самым мощным массовым раздражителем со времен изобретения телевизора. Так опасны ли мобильные телефоны для здоровья или нет? Британские медики утверждают, что мобильники ускоряют реакции головного мозга, и если злоупотреблять разговором по мобильнику, то можно приобрести рак мозга.

Частоты сотовых аппаратов совпадают с частотами естественной биоэлектрической активности головного мозга человека (с так называемым гамма-ритмом мозга, с альфа-ритмом и с дельта-ритмом). Путем резонанса внешних (от телефона) и внутренних (собственных мозга) частот нарушается нормальное течение функций головного мозга. Такие изменения заметны на электроэнцефалограмме и не исчезают длительное время после окончания разговора.

Сегодня многие используют сотовый телефон в качестве будильника, располагая его возле изголовья кровати. Мы ночью спим, а головной мозг и мобильный телефон не "спят". Телефон  постоянно, даже в состоянии ожидания вызова работает в пульсирующем режиме.

Следует учитывать, что в условиях экранирования (автомобиль, железобетонные здания) плотность потока электромагнитного излучения, действующего на человека многократно усиливается.

Шведские ученые доказали, что излучение мобильников постепенно разрушает важные клетки головного мозга. А в Германии ученые подтвердили, что длительное использование сотовой связи может привести к ослаблению памяти, ухудшению способности к обучению, плохому сну, головным болям, утомляемости, повышенной нервозности, нарушению сексуальной активности.

Когда во время экспериментов электромагнитному излучению подвергали самцов крыс, то у них появлялись изменения в сперматозоидах, часто рождалось мёртвое потомство. Но в этих исследованиях излучение было более высоким, чем в сотовой связи. Однако сегодня практически невозможно установить, где начинается грань вредного для здоровья излучения.

Когда мобильник теряет сеть, он становится по-настоящему вредным, он включает специальный режим "Поиск сети" – начинает испускать сильные направленные потоки электромагнитных импульсов, как бы пытаясь "докричаться" до сети. При этом мощность и частотность поискового сигнала значительно выше, чем при работе в обычном режиме. Эти импульсы попадают не только в воздух, но и в хозяина телефона. Если телефон лежит в верхнем кармане пиджака или висит на шейном ремешке, то страдают легкие и сердце. У девушек может развиться мастопатия и даже перерождение ткани молочной железы. Если телефон висит на поясе или лежит в нижнем кармане, страдают печень и половые органы – мобильник вызывает искривление и уменьшение важного мужского органа, который постепенно теряет способность расправляться во время эрекции на всю длину.

В самом тяжелом случае, который наблюдали японские исследователи, половой член обезьяны (в расправленном состоянии) за год уменьшился на 3 см. (Телефоны закреплялись на уровне паха обезьяны – там, где мобильник находится у мужчин, если лежит в кармане брюк, пиджака или висит на поясе.)

Теоретические расчеты показывают, что если режим "Поиск сети" включается раз в день минут на 20 – это абсолютно безопасно. Но если телефон работает в этом режиме по 4 – 5 часов ежедневно (например, при поездках в метро, если сеть под землей не поддерживается), то через 3–4 года могут появиться различные осложнения.

Основными симптомами неблагоприятного воздействия сотового телефона на состояние здоровья являются: головные боли; нарушения памяти и концентрации внимания; непреходящая усталость; депрессивные заболевания; боль и резь в глазах, сухость их слизистой; прогрессивное ухудшение зрения; снижение потенции; повышение артериального давления и пульса (показано, что после разговора по мобильному телефону артериальное давление может повышаться на 5 до 10 мм.рт. столба). Страшно то, что эти проблемы со здоровьем не проявляются сиюминутно, а, значит, процесс неконтролируем.

Во-первых, для развития опухолей мозга от электромагнитного излучения существует латентный период – не менее 10–15 лет.

Во-вторых, за компаниями, которые производят сотовые телефоны стоят огромные деньги и поэтому всегда найдется группа исследователей, которая может получить искомый результат исследований.

KAA